Blog 1: Attitude Change (K.Woods)

Mass Media Gets It Right - SHOCK

Abstract

There have been many attempts at social change programs such as anti-smoking and safe-sex with various degrees of success and failure. Research into the factors which determine the success of attitude change programs have helped to design more effective campaigns which more clearly identify the target audience and the best approaches at reaching and influencing them. Strategies used by commercial advertisers have been incorporated into public service announcements with increasing effectiveness. Many of these strategies are based on social psychology theories.

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Commercial advertisers lead the way

It is generally agreed in research literature that the mass media is very good at raising awareness and providing information about particular social issues, but that it is not necessarily as successful at changing attitudes or behaviours (Bush & Boller, 1991). Commercial advertisers, however, seem very successful at persuading consumers to buy particular products. Governments are now using similar methods to advertisers when creating public service announcements (PSAs) in attempts at bringing about an attitude change.

Advertisers are aware that beliefs are resistant to change (belief perseverance) and so use various methods to persuade consumers to change their beliefs and attitudes. Many use likeable and credible sources to convey their messages (classical conditioning) (Bush & Boller, 1991; Smith, Bauman, McKenzie & Thomas, 2005). For example, an attractive movie star to promote beauty products or a chiropractor to promote an ergonomic piece of furniture.

They are also aware of the importance of context such as showing toy commercials on television during children’s peak viewing times. Governments now use similar techniques in their PSAs by using celebrities to promote their social issues and attempt to control context by avoiding conflicting messages (not showing a safe-sex message during a program which glorifies unsafe sex). However, they have limited control on when PSAs are aired as they are usually run during unsold airtime (Agha, 2002). The immediacy of context is also significant as there is evidence that safe-driving campaigns are more successful if they are aired on radio, rather than on TV, as drivers often listen to the radio in their cars (Gantz, 1990).

Extensive research has been done on measuring the effectiveness of public service campaigns which focus on health and safety issues (ACCV, 1999; Agha, 2002). These measuring tools shape future campaigns to increase effectiveness. Several factors were found to be successful in changing beliefs, attitudes and behaviours.

Main factors in successful attitude change programs

Although the type of campaign and the target audience need to be taken into account, in general, emotion-evoking visual messages via the mass media have been successful in increasing awareness and attitude change (ACCV, 1999). Emotions evoked can be upbeat and optimistic but in other incidences, ones of shock and fear can also be effective (such as graphic car crashes to promote the use of seatbelts) (Delaney, Lough, Wheland & Cameron, 2004). However, care needs to be taken to avoid causing overwhelming fear or anxiety which may make it hard for the individual to properly comprehend the intended message (Bush & Boller, 1991).

It has also been found that personal relevance is important (Cialdini, Petty & Cacioppo, 1981). The target audience needs to be able to relate to the social issue as well as to the messenger (Agha, 2002; Delaney et al., 2004). For example, the target audience in the early SunSmart campaign included parents and children, a simple message to cover up was used with the tag line “slip slop slap” and the messenger was a friendly cartoon character (ACCV, 1999).

Peers from an individual’s social group have proved very successful in advocating attitude change. In Zambia, for instance, adolescents were trained to educate other adolescents from the same social group about HIV and AIDS. This method, which involved role play of real-life scenarios, was much more effective at bringing about increased awareness, attitude and behaviour change, than a purely informative approach, such as factual brochures (Agha, 2002). Gantz (1990) refers to these peer-group messengers as “interpersonal sources of influence”. Personal relevance also extends to using real-life scenarios which the target audience has a real possibility of experiencing. These personal relevance factors encourage a feeling of trust, confidence and similarity (Cialdini et al, 1981). (See appendix A for details on how this relates to the psychological theories of: social comparison, moral inclusion, Maslow’s need for belonging, symbolic modelling, self presentation, conformity.)

Using themes of optimism have also proved successful where the individual feels able to achieve the suggested goal through his own actions – in other words, the individual does not feel overwhelmed and helpless by the size of the problem. Giving the individual a way to cope with the problem is important. Instead of just stating what not to do, an alternative behaviour should be suggested (ACCV, 1999; Agha 2002). Effective engagement encourages the individual to maintain the new attitude (APS, 2007). (See appendix A for how this relates to theories of: self efficacy, operant learning.)

Repeated exposure to the issue also helps to maintain the new attitude, so follow-up measures are useful such as giving feedback or reviewing progress via questionnaires or interviews. The individual is encouraged to think again about the social issue, their attitudes and their relating behaviours which should strengthen the new attitude (Delaney et al., 2004). (See appendix A for related theories: cognitive dissonance theory, duplex mind, choice, attitude polarisation, balance theory.)

Learn from the masters

In conclusion, creators of attitude change programs would benefit in using well-researched social psychological theories to design their campaigns for maximum effectiveness. Campaigns have increased effectiveness when the target audience has been clearly identified and the campaign content shaped to relate well to those people. The audience needs to be given a sense of cognitive dissonance between the issue and their relevant attitudes and behaviours towards it. This should cause them to either rationalise or adapt in order to eliminate the feeling of discomfort. If a desired behaviour which can resolve the imbalance is suggested, especially by a perceived credible source, then there is a fair likelihood of the individual changing their attitude and subsequent behaviour. Opportunities for reflection on the issue will help to maintain new attitudes and behaviours. Advertisers in the mass media have been getting it right for some time and have provided a workable formula for successful attitude change programs.

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Appendix A

Relevant Social Psychology Theories
In Attitude Change Programs
The Drive for Consistency*

Social Comparison, Symbolic Modelling, Self-Efficacy:
In the AIDS/HIV example in Zambia, peer education includes trained adolescent leaders, who are of similar age and status to the target audience (adolescents) and so share similar attitudes and values. They take factually correct information and personalize it for the adolescent audience. They reinforce positive normative beliefs and enhance adolescent self-efficacy. In other words, they show that individuals can take preventative measures to avoid infection without fearing to appear old-fashioned or boring.

Moral Inclusion, Conformity and Maslow’s Need to Belong:
Peers are considered as ingroup members so there is already a sense of trust. People tend to desire to belong to a group which encourages conforming to ingroup norms. Therefore, people can be influenced by ingroup peers moreso than outgroup members.

Self Presentation and Hypocrisy Induction:
People prefer to maintain a good reputation in the eyes of others. This encourages prosocial behaviour especially if the person can be identified in connection with their behaviours. People tend to be less selfish when they can be held accountable. They prefer to be seen as having consistency between their attitudes and behaviours – in other words, to be seen to practice what they preach.

Operant learning:
If people are rewarded for exhibiting certain behaviours, they are more likely to continue the behaviour. This also includes observing others being rewarded for certain behaviours. The reward does not have to be material. It can be an internal reward, such as feeling good about oneself, and comparing well to similar others.

Cognitive Dissonance, Balance Theory and the Duplex Mind:
When the automatic system finds inconsistency regarding attitudes, such as implicit vs explicit, and behaviours, the conscious system tries to resolve the feeling of discomfort by rationalising one’s existing attitudes and behaviours or by changing them. The mind drives to maintain balance between these dual attitudes and behaviours.

Choice:
Choice forces people to review their attitudes which may reveal inconsistencies, which would then need to be rationalised or changed. For example, legislation such as wearing a seatbelt may force people to change their behaviour to avoid getting into trouble, but it may not change their attitude towards the safety issue. However, provocative video footage of ordinary people being seriously injured in a car crash may influence a person’s attitude towards safety. They would have to rationalise risking injury to themselves or another person by choosing not to wear a seatbelt.

Attitude polarization:
Attitudes strengthen the more a person thinks about them, so asking them to reflect on or review their attitudes on particular issues, can make their attitudes in these areas more extreme. This is particularly useful if an attitude change program has been successful in gaining the desired attitude and behaviour. The attitude will be more enduring.

*Baumeister & Bushman (2008) was referred to for some of these concepts.

Link to Attitude Change Concept Map: http://karensocialpsych.blogspot.com/2007/09/attitude-change-concept-map.html

Link to SunSmart skin cancer awareness campaigns:
http://www.sunsmart.com.au/browse.asp?ContainerID=campaigns_advertising

Appendix B Self-Assessment can be accessed from this link:

http://karensocialpsych.blogspot.com/2007/09/self-assessment-blog-1.html

References

Agha, S. (2002). Peer Intervention on Sexual Health in Zambia. AIDS Education and Prevention, 14(4), pp.269-281.

Anti-Cancer Council of Victoria (1999). Sunsmart Evaluation Studies No.6. The ACCV's Skin Cancer Control Program 1996/1997 and 1997/1998 and Related Research and Evaluation.

APS (2007). Greenwashing, spin, and climate change porn. Article by the National Office Public Interest team. InPsych, 29(4), The Australian Psychological Society Ltd: VIC.

Bush, A.J. & Boller, G.W. (1991). Rethinking the role of television advertising during health crises: A rhetorical analysis of the Federal AIDS campaigns. Journal of Advertising, 20(1), pp.28-37.

Baumeister, R.F. & Bushman, B.J. (2008). Social Psychology and Human Nature. Thomson Wadsworth: Belmont, CA.

Cialdini, R.B.; Petty, R.E.; Cacioppo, J.T. (1981). Attitude and Attitude Change. Annual Review of Psychology, 32, p357-404.

Delaney, A., Lough, B., Whelan, M. & Cameron, M. (2004). A Review of Mass Media Campaigns in Road Safety. Report No.220. Monash University Accident Research Centre.

Gantz W., Fitzmaurice, M., Yoo, E. (1990). Seat Belt Campaigns and Buckling Up: Do the Media Make a Difference? Health Communication, 2(1), pp.1-12, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.

Smith, B.J., Bauman, A.E., McKenzie J. & Thomas, M. (2005). Awareness of message source and its association with the impacts of sun protection campaigns in Australia. Health Education, 105(1), pp.42 – 52, Emerald Group Publishing Limited.